Evidence of areca nut consumption during the Ice Age has been found in Sulawesi

Residents of the Indonesian island of Sulawesi were likely consuming psychoactive areca seeds as far back as 16,000–25,000 years ago. This is indicated by traces of the substance arecoline in ancient teeth and unusual deep grooves on their surfaces.

The study, led by Adam Brumm of Griffith University, has been published in *Science Advances*. The authors suggest that hunter-gatherers held whole seeds, known as betel nuts, in their mouths for long periods and sucked on them. This conclusion is based on two finds and laboratory experiments.

Details

The scientists examined the remains of two adults from southern Sulawesi. One set of remains was estimated to be 25,000–16,000 years old, whilst the other was estimated to be 7,600–6,300 years old. Experts from Hasanuddin University and the Indonesian National Agency for Research and Innovation (BRIN) participated in the study.

Rounded indentations were found on the teeth of both individuals, indicating repeated friction against a hard object. The size and shape of Areca catechu palm seeds correspond to such marks. Further evidence came in the form of arecoline – a psychoactive compound found in areca nuts, which was detected during biomolecular analysis of the dental tissues.

To test the possible mechanism of action, the researchers soaked whole seeds in artificial saliva. The resulting extracts were tested on frog egg cells in which human receptors — proteins that respond to chemical signals — had been engineered. The experiments showed that arecoline is released even without chewing the seed, when lime is added.

According to the authors’ interpretation, sucking on whole seeds may have preceded the modern tradition of chewing areca mixtures. However, the laboratory model does not reveal exactly what sensations ancient people experienced.

Why this is important

The findings allow us to trace the use of areca back to the late Pleistocene, long before the advent of agriculture. The authors regard these as possibly the earliest evidence of the habitual use of a psychoactive plant substance. This does not mean that the place and time of humanity’s first use of such substances have been established.

The study has its limitations: two individuals do not represent the entire population of the island, and the broad dating range of the older find does not allow us to state with certainty that it is precisely 25,000 years old. Furthermore, the similarity of traces found in people from different eras does not in itself prove the continuity of tradition between them.

One hypothesis concerns toothache: areca may have been consumed for its analgesic effect. Both individuals had chronic dental problems, and in one case, wear and tear had in places exposed the inner cavity of the tooth, revealing the sensitive pulp. The authors suggest that the habit may have exacerbated the damage and encouraged continued use. The motives of these ancient people remain unknown.

The study was funded by the Australian Research Council — grants FT160100119 and DP210102981 — Griffith University and the Granucci Foundation.

Source

Adam Brumm et al. Betel nut sucking is the earliest recorded evidence for the habitual use of a neuroactive plant drug. Science Advances, 2026, vol. 12, issue 37, eaei1901. Published 9 September 2026. DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aei1901.

The description of the results has been verified against the official statement from Griffith University and the authors’ explanation on the Charles Sturt University website dated 10 September 2026. Details of funding are provided in the press release on Scimex. The full text of the journal article was not available for verification at the time of writing.